Is Kant’s system of deontological ethics feasible and desirable?

Kant argues that “it is impossible to imagine anything at all in the world…that can be called good without qualification- except a good will”[1] as “a good will seems to constitute the indispensible condition even of our worthiness to be happy”[2]. This is Kant’s opening to his view on morality in which he explains that all post-Kantian morality has been based on a posteriori foundations where we take happiness to be the good. What Kant proposes is a theory opposing this in the sense that the moral good is a priori and comes from out will to do what is right via a sense of duty to do what is morally good. This a priori moral good Kant calls the categorical imperative which is a highly desirable concept of morality to have although it requires some amending before it can be seen as a feasible model for morality.

To understand the categorical imperative we must first explain the whole moral system Kant is in favour for beginning with the first point. It is argued “the moral worth of an action done out of duty has its moral worth…in the maxim…with which the action is decided upon…not in actualizing the object of the action”[3], meaning moral satisfaction does not come from the actualization of some abstract goal such as eudaimonia, pleasure or virtue, but from the moral act in itself. This is because the moral worth of an action can “be found…in the principle of the will…the crossroads between its a priori principle…and it’s a posteriori motivation”[4], or in other words our duty to act morally and our desire to be seen as being moral, thus the will acts as a synthesiser combing the a priori duty with the a posteriori desire into one simple product which drives us towards moral action.

What is meant here by the term duty is “the necessity of an act done out of respect for the law”[5], only by the law Kant is not referring to man-made law but an overarching a priori universal law. This universal law can be understood as an ‘I ought’ statement as “I ought never…act in such a way that I could not also will that my maxim should become a universal law”[6] so not only ‘must’ we act in accordance to our maxim but it must be a maxim compatible with the universe so that everyone can adhere to it at all times without exception, or as Kant puts it “moral laws must hold for every rational being”[7]. Therefore any maxim devised by our will must first go through the test for universalisability to ensure it is an universalisable maxim, if it passes it becomes an objective principle, if it fails it becomes a subjective principle.

Now “an objective principle…is called a commandment…the formulation of this commandment is called an Imperative”[8]. So any objective principle which passes the test for universalisability is an imperative of which, Kant argues, there are two kinds; hypothetical imperatives which “declare a possible action…to the attainment of something that one wants”[9], and categorical imperatives which “would be one that represented an action as itself objectively necessary, without regard to any further end.”[10]. An example of a hypothetical imperative would be ‘to succeed in passing this module I ought to study Kant well’ the reason this is hypothetical is because it relies on the ‘I’ in question to want the success of passing the module but not every one wants this, a majority of people care nothing for the success in passing a Kant module, thus it cannot be willed upon everybody. However an example of a categorical imperative might be ‘I ought not to lie as I have a duty to adhere to the principle of honesty’ this can be universalised as we can will everyone to tell the truth consistently otherwise there would be little or no room for honesty.

Kant claims that there is one golden categorical imperative which rests above all others and it is “act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”[11], as was stated earlier only Kant goes on to explain that one maxim of such a kind ought to be taken more importantly than others “a human being…does exist as an end in himself, not merely as a means to be used…a human being must always be viewed…as an end”[12]. If we all adhere to this moral maxim then we shall move towards a moral utopia in which we all follow the universal law that is the categorical imperative, Kant calls this utopia the ‘kingdom of ends’ about which he says “a being who must regard itself as making universal law by all the maxims of its will…leads to a…very fruitful concept- namely, that of a kingdom of ends…the systematic union of different rational beings under common laws”[13]. Hence the categorical imperative is to treat others in such a way that we can will everyone to treat each other in the same way in order to bring about this moral utopia.

A supporter of Kant’s theory is the developmental psychologist Kohlberg who drew up a model which maps the moral development of individuals. Kohlberg came to realise that a majority of individuals today are grounded upon stage four moralities with some elements of stage five moralities[14]. Thus modern society is grounded upon what Kohlberg calls ‘conventional morality’[15]. However Kohlberg argues that Kant’s deontological ethics is beyond the morality of the majority of modern individuals as it is grounded upon stage six moralities. From this it could be argued that since politics and social thinking is moving towards an age of post-modernism then we too should me moving into ‘post-conventional morality’ based upon stage five-six morality (or possibly stage seven). Therefore in Kohlberg’s view Kant’s moral theory is highly desirable, thus we ought to strive towards a kingdom of ends and live by the categorical imperative.

Kant’s theory of the categorical imperative has also been applied, to some extent, to the political sphere by Rawls in his theory of social justice. His idea of selecting principle of justice from behind a veil of ignorance where “no one knows his place in society, his class…or social status, nor…his fortune in the distribution of natural assets”[16], this ensures that we do not select principle which benefit us at the expense of others which can be interpreted as Kant’s categorical imperative of not using people as a means to an end since by exploiting others to gain their fair share of resources we have used them as a way (a means) to acquire our desire (an end). Rawls even argues that for this categorical imperative, although never actually mentioning it in such a way, to work there must first be a principle in place which ensures “no one should be advantaged or disadvantaged by natural fortune”[17], this principle is the principle of political equality, this principle ensures that all individuals are covered by an equal distribution of political freedoms so that those of higher social status are able to manipulate and exploit those lowering down the ladder. Furthermore we can see the direct link between Rawlsian justice and Kantian ethics by a point brought up by Scruton, “if we are to find an imperative that recommends itself on the basis of reason alone, then we must abstract from all distinctions between rational agents”[18]. Or to explain this in another way to build a categorical imperative we must place ourselves behind a veil of ignorance. Therefore not only is the categorical imperative desirable but it also has some practical application.

Kant’s categorical imperative of treating agents as an end in themselves and not as a means to an end does, to a greater or lesser extent, the Christian ethic described in Matthew’s Gospel, “So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets”[19] as we would not want to be used by another as a way of helping them fulfil their desire so we ought not to do this to others. Even the utopia of a kingdom of ends has the distinct echo of the biblical utopia of a kingdom of God. Given Kant’s Christian upbringing it is of no surprise that his moral theory has Christian undertones even “Kant regarded…the categorical imperative as the philosophical basis of the famous golden rule, that we should do as we would be done by”[20] so it was by no accident that Kant’s theory was based upon Christian teaching.

However this is where the categorical imperative breaks down as Kant argues it is an objective principle done out of duty, but if being a Christian ethic then it is done out of a duty to God and therefore only those who follow the Christian religion making the whole concept a subjective, and hypothetical, system as it relies on the condition ‘if you are Christian then you ought to follow this rule’. It would therefore bear no force upon those of other faiths unless we do employ Rawls’ veil of ignorance to abstract ourselves from our religious beliefs and then agree on following Kant’s categorical imperative out of not a duty to God but a duty to each other as free, rational agents.

Another argument which can be made against the categorical imperative is that it can permit actions which are deemed immoral or even illegal under current ways of thinking. If we were to ask the question, if an axe murderer who comes knocking on our door asking if X (fill in the name of someone who cherish) is in are we then obliged to tell the truth? The utilitarian viewpoint is to argue we ‘must’ lie on this occasion as the misery inflicted upon the murderer by not killing X is outweighed by the happiness of X and yourself for having X still alive at the end of the day. However Kant argues that we ‘ought’ to tell the truth here as we have agreed to follow the categorical imperative and because of such we would not want to be lied to so we must not lie to others regardless. What is then even stranger is the categorical imperative also then demands us to kill the murderer since he is acting on the maxim ‘I expect to be able to kill others so I expect others to kill me’ so we have to first follow our maxim and then adhere to the murderer’s. This sounds controversial but if we refer back to Kohlberg’s then the utilitarian view on this is based upon stage four morality[21] whereas Kant’s view is stage six and therefore we should try to adhere to Kant’s view rather than the utilitarian view. However since the law and social conventions are still stuck in stage four morality to move into Kantian thinking requires a complete overhaul of the legal system, social conventions and the way we see morality, not as a pursuit of happiness but as doing what is our duty to ourselves and others. Such an overhaul is unfeasible as it requires a slow and steady series of amendments to what we now have to want we want at the end, thus for the time being the categorical imperative is not a feasible moral theory.

In the video game Final Fantasy IX we come across an interplanetary moral dilemma where the planet Terra is dying so Garland, the overlord of Terra, constructs a new planet called Gaia and creates a new race of conscious humanoid beings who are free, rational agents. The problem here is “all the people of Gaia were created…to house the souls of the people of Terra”[22] once Terra had perished, neither side had been informed about this and both sides are being used as a means to an end, in this case the end being to save the people of Terra from extinction. As the game progresses you find out “all parties are angry with this”[23] however it is not because they have been used as a means that they are angry but because they have not be informed about being used in such a way. A group of post-Kantian thinkers known as ‘moral autonomy Kantians’ uphold that “it’s morally acceptable for a person- by virtue of being a rational, autonomous agent- to give permission to be used by others”[24] so long as all parties are fully informed about is involved, for example in the world of Final Fantasy “players…can summon Guardian Forces (GFs) …for the purpose of defeating the enemy…these GFs must…agree to assist the player”[25] and the players are informed that their character loses its free-will during this period as the GF takes complete control of the character’s body, just as the GF is informed that when summoned it is open to harm from whatever beast it has been summoned to deal with. This means the categorical imperative to one that can be twisted so long as a form of social contract has been established between all parties, which Kohlberg states is a stage five morality and therefore is more desirable than utilitarian models we have in place currently. It also offers a more feasible model than the original, stage six moralities, categorical imperative as it does not require a large reconstruction of society.

To conclude Kant’s notion of an a priori morality based upon the categorical imperative where we treat each other as an end and not as a means to an end is one that is desirable, according to Kohlberg’s scale of moral development, but not feasible in the original format Kant provides, instead we should follow the slightly amended version proposed by moral autonomy Kantians which allows us to be treated as a means to and end so long as we have consented to be used in such a way if a feasible moral system based upon Kantian deontology. Personally I believe a more relative system of ethics is required and particularly favour Aristotle’s virtue theory (with a few amendments made), but what do you guys think?

Bibliography

• Arp. R and Fisk. S, 2009, ‘Objectification of Conscious Life Forms in Final Fantasy’, in Beaulieu. M and Blahuta. J, ‘Final Fantasy and Philosophy the Ultimate Walkthrough’, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc, pp 72-87
• Kant. I, 2002, Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (Translated by Zweig), Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Rawls. J, 1999, A Theory of Justice (Revised Edition), Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Scruton. R, 2001, Kant a Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• The Holy Bible accessed at  http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+7%3A12&version=NIV [accessed at 14:59 6^th March 2010]
• http://faculty.plts.edu/gpence/html/kohlberg.htm [accessed at 13:19 6th March 2010]
• http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/kohlberg.htm [accessed at 14:09 6th March 2010]

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[1] Kant. I, Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, 2002, 4:393

[2] Ibid, 4:393

[3] Ibid, 4:399-4:400

[4] Ibid, 4:400

[5] Ibid, 4:400

[6] Ibid, 4:402

[7] Ibid. 4:412

[8] Ibid. 4:413

[9] Ibid, 4:414

[10] Ibid, 4:414

[11] Ibid. 4:421

[12] Ibid. 4:428

[13] Ibid. 4:433

[14] See appendix one

[15] Ibid

[16]Rawls. J, A Theory of Justice, 1999, pg.11

[17] Ibid, pg.16

[18] Scruton. R, Kant a Very Short Introduction, 2001, pg.85

[19] Matthew 7:12

[20] Scruton. R, Kant a Very Short Introduction, 2001, pg.86

[21] See appendix one

[22] Arp. R and Fisk. S, 2009, ‘Objectification of Conscious Life Forms in Final Fantasy’, pg.74

[23] Ibid, pg.74

[24] Ibid, pg.74

[25] Ibid, pg.77

Fifth Dialogue of Zhi-Guan

Zhi-Guan takes his usual afternoon stroll through the cherry blossom where he comes across Kina-Chan weeping softly into the gentle spring breeze…

Zhi-Guan: “Kina-Chan my good friend what foul action of the heavens has moved you to such emotion this day?”

Kina-Chan: “A soul close to my heart no longer walks on this plane. I weep for her return which I know shall never come.”

Zhi-Guan: “I see. Death is often unjust in his acts, and equally as unjust in his inactions. But I tell you this in hope it lands on listening ears, do not mourn the dead for they are no longer with us to praise your waste of energy. Instead celebrate the fact they are now gone.”

Kina-Chan: “You monster! How can you remain so stoic in your resolve as you speak such vile words.”

Zhi-Guan: “If you would spare me the time I will be happy to explain my reasoning”

Kina-Chan: “Very well Zhi-Guan. I trust your wisdom so I shall offer you my fullest attention.”

Zhi-Guan: “Thank you. My case comes in two parts. The first regards the deceased. You see life is full of pains, tragedies and regrets all of which weigh upon the soul like lead, when Death calls he is merciful in the fact that he offers to remove our heavy burdens and make us free once more, all he asks in return is we hand over the mortal vessel which binds us to this plane. Once the transaction is complete your soul is free once more from pain, from suffering, from the troubles of mortallity. Even if the next plane holds nothingness and void is that not better than continued pain?”

Kina-Chan: “I guess. But life is also full of pleasure, friendships and worthwhiles do you suggest we ignore them in our calculations all because of some pain?”

Zhi-Guan: “Not at all. But all too often the negatives outwiegh the postives and Death leaves the postives with us to take care of in our memories he is in fact more merciful than people first think.”

Kina-Chan: “Very well I guess I can accept your words so far. You mentioned there is to be two parts. Please let me hear the second.”

Zhi-Guan: “Indeed this is to be a second, although it is more cut-throat and egoistic than the first.”

Kina-Chan: “Proceed still and I shall try not to hold it against you.”

Zhi-Guan: “We exist on a planet holding 7 billion, a planet growing tired and weak as we leech off its life-force like some rampant parasite. Together we have exhausted food sources by hunting our fellow beasts to extinction, poisoned oceans, soils and skies through our usage of toxins derived from the underbelly of the planet all of which has reduced the flora and fauna we use for shelter, food and binding of the land.  Fuels are now scarce thanks to our over-indulgence of luxurious living so soon fire will burn cold. In short we have collectively brought dischord to the elements, fire now cold, air now toxic, water has become acid and soil deadly posion. We must start to look after ourselves in we our to survive and fight against all those who move in on our share of resources.”

Kina-Chan: “Where does this fit into why I should not mourn the dead?”

Zhi-Guan: “It is precisely the fact that they are dead which is the cause of celebration. Once deceased what need for their resources do they have?”

Kina-Chan: “None.  Now I see so by taking Death’s hand we can move in and make claim to thier resources and celebrate one less drain on the planet.”

Zhi-Guan: “Precisely. As horrid as this may sound.”

Kina-Chan: “Thank you for your time Zhi-Guan. I cannot say I completly agree, but I can honestly say I have taken some slight comfort in your wisdom. I must now walk on for time drfits by and despite one life ending many more must still continue else all shall fall into decay.”

Zhi-Guan: “Until next time then my friend.”

 

Is Kant’s Model of Transcendental Idealism a Defendable Notion?

Before deciding whether transcendental idealism is a defensible viewpoint, transcendental idealism must first be defined, and separated from the other forms of idealism so that a better understanding of what it proposes can be obtained. Then it needs to be compared to other forms of idealism to see, of the different forms of idealism, whether it can be defended as a valid idea. After this it shall be subjected to three forms of realism to see if it can stand up to the traditional opponent of idealism. I am confident that transcendental idealism, when properly understood and argued, will not only be shown to be a defensible notion, but show that it is fully capable of revealing the other forms of idealism and all kinds of realism to be untenable in comparison.

To begin with definitions are in order, so what, exactly, is idealism? Idealism is the view that ‘the physical world exists either only as an object for mind, or only as a content of mind, or only as something itself somehow mental in its true character’ (Sprigge, 1998). That is to say that the world of our sensations, or outer sense, is to a greater or lesser degree mind-dependant. It is the degree of dependency the physical world has to the mind that is under dispute in idealism. Some like George Berkeley claim that only two kinds of things exist, minds and ideas, and that the physical world is nothing more than a collection of ideas in the form of sense data. Others, like Kant, (2007) would strongly argue against this as they claim that whilst our sense experience relies on the synthetic a priori truths of space and time which are reliant on our minds, what we sense as physical objects are only ‘mere impressions’ and not what they are as things-in-themselves [A 491].

 

 

As for the definition of ‘transcendental’ in this context, Kant gives it to us earlier on in the ‘critique of pure reason’ at [A 12] where he says: “I entitle transcendental all knowledge which is occupied not so much with objects as with the mode our knowledge of objects in so far as this mode of knowledge is to be possible a priori.” According to this, then, transcendental idealism concerns our minds and their cognitive operations, its functions and limitations. This is as opposed to the mistaken impression that some could make that by transcendental he meant to make claims of things beyond our scope of understanding, for he makes no claims about the nature of things-in-themselves, other than the fact that they exist as things-in-themselves in so far as they are things-in-themselves [B xxvi]. With this understood, Kant’s transcendental idealism shall now be compared to other forms of idealism to see if it is defensible in that regard.

First up is the ontological (or dogmatic) idealism of Berkeley (Sprigge, 1998). Expanding on what has been said on this earlier, there are two reasons why Berkeley believed the physical world was made up of ideas. The first claim is that the only way we can have empirical evidence for the existence of physical objects is if these objects are conceived as collections of ideas which cohere in experience. The second assertion is that both primary and secondary qualities of objects are mind-dependant, as the factors that make the apparently secondary qualities mind-dependant can equally be said to be valid for claiming the same for primary ones. The challenge transcendental idealism has to deal with here is this, if these two reasons given by Berkeley are true, as far as we can make out, is not the idea that there might be something beyond our senses  which is responsible for ‘appearances’ that lies outside of our minds as a thing-in-itself merely multiplying entities beyond their necessity?

 

Kant would say not for, whilst agreeing with the second claim in so far as they regard ‘mere impressions’, it being something that needs both our sense experience that requires the a priori intuitions of space and time, and concepts that require the logical function in judgements and categories of our faculty of understanding. He would disagree that things-in-themselves are objects, ‘Without sensibility no object would be given to us, without understanding no object could be thought’ [A 51] for something to be an object for us it requires both the intuitions and the concepts, therefore the things-in-themselves are not objects.

Kant doesn’t claim that they are objects, for nothing can be said of things-in-themselves other than they can be thought [B xxvi – B xxvii], so to say there is a multiplication of entities is false because rather than there being ‘appearances’ and things-in-themselves as two separate ‘things’, one exists and the other is the ‘mere impression’ of the thing-in-itself upon our minds. As time and space are intuitions they are mind-dependant and they and the things that rest upon them cannot be part of what things-in-themselves are, so things-in-themselves bear no resemblance to the ‘mere impressions’ whilst at the same time being the same entity.  Kant asserts that we can know that things-in-themselves exist, and that there are more than just minds and their ideas. To do this he takes ‘time’ which both he and Berkeley would agree exists in the inner sense (for Berkeley ALL that exists resides in the inner sense), and puts forward the following two arguments:

Firstly, I am aware of myself as being in time. Being in time presupposes something permanent perceptionally. But this permanence cannot come from me because my existence in time relies upon this permanence. Therefore my perception of this permanence is only possible because of a ‘thing’ outside of me, not an ‘appearance’ of a thing outside me which means that my awareness of being in time is possible only because there are actual things I perceive outside of me. Secondly, that my awareness of being in time is linked by necessity of being aware of the possibility of being in time. Therefore it is linked by necessity to the existence of things outside of me as the state of being in time, which means the awareness of my own existence is at the same time a direct awareness of the existence of other ‘things’ outside of me [B 276].

This not only defends transcendental idealism against Ockham’s razor, but eliminates the idealism of Berkeley, as it shows there is more than just minds and ideas, and gives a good case for the existence of things-in-themselves. Another form of idealism is the problematic idealism of Descartes [B 274 – B275], who argues that objects outside of us in space cannot be proven, as we are unable to prove anything outside of our direct experience, which is that of the ‘cogito’ or inner sense. This is equally defeated by the above argument as it shows that our inner experience of the ‘cogito’ is only possible if we presuppose the experience of objects outside of us in space.

Next up are the varying kinds of ‘realism’, but what is meant by realism, and how is opposed to idealism? Well realism (Craig, 1998) is the belief that everything about our sense experience, or outer sense, is mind-independent and that what we see, hear, taste, touch and smell is the world as it really is. As all idealism relies upon some element of mind-dependence, they are opposed in regards to our minds and sense experience. There are three main variations of realism that shall be tackled, naive (or direct), representative (or indirect), and transcendental realism, these shall be explained below.

Naive (or direct) realism (Heil, 2006) is the view that we perceive things as they really are. That the properties that we find are mind-independent – colour, shape, taste and such are direct properties of the perceived objects themselves. Direct realism claims that there is no noumenal realm of things-in-themselves, as what we see are things-in-themselves. It is considered epistemically direct, but does not have to be causally direct in nature.

Representative (or indirect) realism (Dretske, 2006) is the idea that whilst there is a world of mind-independent objects, we don’t directly perceive them, we only directly perceive the effects of these objects upon us. As opposed to direct realism we don’t see things-in-themselves, but whereas transcendental idealism makes a similar claim, indirect realism differs by stating that what we perceive in the effects of these objects upon us are actually the properties that things-in-themselves possess.

The final kind of realism that shall be looked at is transcendental realism (A 369). Transcendental realism is put forward by Kant as the opposing transcendental view. This differing outlook states that both time and space are independent to our sensibility, and that outer experiences are to be considered things-in-themselves and also exist independently of our senses. Because of this they are outside of our pure concepts of the understanding.

Kant has a response to each of these forms of realism corporately, as they all possess the common thread of declaring time and space to be outside of our minds, and inherent in the objects of our outer experience, conversely this is one contention that they all have in common against transcendental idealism as it holds the diametrically opposed view that time and space are indeed internal to our minds. To defend transcendental idealism against these forms therefore, it shall be shown in two arguments why time and space are internal to us, and how realism is an absurd notion.

The first argument shows how space and time can be seen as internal to us, and is proposed like this: The existence of myself (and hence my inner state) is necessary because I am self aware [B 55]. Self awareness of my inner state is only possible if objects outside of me are presupposed. Before objects can be cognized time and space must be presupposed. If time and space are presupposed before experiencing objects of outer sense, then time and space are a priori. If a priori, then they are pure forms of sensible intuition. ‘The understanding can intuit nothing and the senses can think nothing’ [B 76], therefore to perceive objects requires both pure forms of sensory intuition and concepts. I am aware of external objects both conceptually and intuitionally, therefore time and space are internal to me

This second argument shows how if time and space are assumed to be external to us it can lead to absurdity [A 369]. For, if time and space are eternally self-existent entities outside of us that include everything within them, then outer appearances are things-in-themselves. If outer appearances are things-in-themselves, then they exist outside of our sensibility. If they exist outside of our sensibility, then they exist outside of the pure concepts of understanding. If we lack the sensibility and concepts of outer appearances, then we cannot know them. If we cannot know outer appearances, then we can only know inner appearances. If we can only know inner appearances, then we can only know our minds and its ideas. If we say we can only know our minds and ideas, then we are dogmatic idealists. If we claim to be dogmatic idealists, then time and space cannot be eternally self-existent entities outside of us that include everything within them.

If however, you argue that time and space is outside of us but subsists within objects [B57], then time and space can only be seen as relations of objects of outer sense. If only as relations of objects of outer sense, then these relations can only come about through experience. If only through experience, then a priori systems such as mathematics or geometry cannot be used to understand objects of the outer sense. We can understand objects of the outer sense with geometry or mathematics; therefore time and space do not subsist in objects. As you can see, when both arguments are brought to their conclusion both of the possible ways that time and space can be outside us are shown to be flawed, either it denies itself, or denies the self evident.

In conclusion, I would say that of the viewpoints expressed within this essay, transcendental idealism has shown itself to be the superior. In regards to Dogmatic and problematic idealism, it showed that our inner experience is only possible if we presuppose the experience of objects outside of us in space and successfully tackled the claim that it was falling foul of Ockham’s razor. In regards to naive and representational realism, it showed their claim that time and space is found within objects to put into question the far more self evident truths of mathematics and geometry with respect to our outer experience. Finally in regards to transcendental idealism, it showed that by claiming that time and space were eternally self-existent entities outside of us it self-refuted itself by unpacking through argument into a form of dogmatic idealism. Considering all this, I think that you will agree.

References

Craig. E, (1998), Realism and antirealism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.

Dretske, F. (2006). Perception. In:  Audi, R. (Ed.) The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. 2^nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press. P654-658

Heil, J. (2006). Direct Realism. In:  Audi, R. (Ed.) The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. 2^nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press. P237-238

Kant, I. (2007). Critique of Pure Reason. (Trans: Smith, N.K.  2^nd ed.) U.K: Palgrave Macmillan.

Sprigge, T.L.S. (1998). Idealism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.

Fourth Dialogue of Zhi-Guan

Lao-Zhu: “Welcome my honoured guests to my humble abode, I have invited you all here this evening as you have gained reputation for being the wisest people in our lands. I desire to hear your wisdom in hope of learning how it is I may seek enlightenment. May we begin with your theory Qiang-Shan?”

Qiang-Shan: “Thank you Lazo-Zhu it is of course a great honour to be here in your presence as you to have a reputation for being wise, or as I have heard others call you; a sage. It is has to my understanding though that enlightenment is achievable through a lifetime of studying the philosophic arts”

Lao-Zhu: “Yet no lifetime is long enough to study such a thing to its completion so by this understanding enlightenment never come to actuality, it is doomed to remain only potentiality. Sheng-Ren perhaps your theory holds better.”

Sheng-Ren: “I hold enlightenment to be knowing where limits to your knowledge lie, once one knows what it is he does not know his mind becomes free from uncertainty and confusion, thus achieves a sense of inner peace.”

Lazo-Zhu: “But how does one come to know what it is he does not know if one does not yet know what it is? I find your theory flaws my good friend, although I admire the socratic direction of your thinking.”

Mo-Zi: “Perhaps a better interpretation of what Sheng-Ren is saying might be; enlightenment comes from admitting all you think you know may be false, thus all is in doubt”

Lao-Zhu: “If so then what your proposing Mo-Zi is that enlightenment becomes almost synonymous with uncertainty and confusion. This being the case then you must even be doubtful about your doubt so that your become uncertain about your uncertainty, in which case no knowledge could ever be possible and your mind becomes forever in turmoil. Surely enlightenment is about bringing your mind to peace not conflict? So either you have missed the point of enlightenment Mo-Zi, or enlightenment is not what I believed it to be. Let us hear your notions on the subject Kina-Chan before I make my decisions about Mo-Zi’s theory.”

Kina-Chan: “Enlightenment comes from living in accordance to one’s heart not one’s mind, hence doing what it is one loves most whenever and wherever one want to. A pure life of indulgence.”

Qiang-Shan: “But how does one finance a life of such indulgence? And what about the moral issues surrouding the heart’s desires of certain men? Can we allow murderer’s to murder to their hearts’ content just so they may seek enlightenment or ought we frobid them from achieving enlightenment? I fear work is needed with your thesis dear friend.”

Lao-Zhu: “Kina-Chan it sounds to me as if what you preach enlightnement to be is the life of a bard, travelling the world singing and playing to any and every ear willing to listen to him spill out his soul in return for a meagre profit. A truly noble class of people are the bards yet if all were to be bards then no nationstate would survive.”

Tian-Zhu: “The bard is only enlightened if he directs his heart, mind and soul towards God as inner peace is found through accepting God’s divine glory without question”

Mo-Zi: “So how we know when we have accpeted God’s divine glory?”

Tian-Zhu: “This is a matter of faith Mo-Zi, it is not to be questioned by man and his limited capacities.”

Mo-Zi: “So what you propose then is enlightenment is accepting what is unknowable and not to question what is unknown, in which case how can we accept what is unknowable if we cannot know what it is we must accept? Your notion is just as flawed as mine or Sheng-Ren’s.”

Lao-Zhu: “Zhi-Guan you have yet to speak, please present to us your thesis.”

Zhi-Guan: “But my learned friends I already have presented it to you.”

Sheng-Ren: “You have not uttered a single syllable Zhi-Guan, how may we absorb your great wisdom if you refuse to share, please deliver upon us your theories so that we may bask in your light.”

Zhi-Guan: “As I feared you do not understand. I need not stay a moment longer as you have failed to realise my thesis. I bid you all goodnight now my friends.”

 

Aristotle on Human Nature

“All men by nature require to know”[1]

This quote by Aristotle was taken from ‘Aristotle: a Very Short Introduction’ and there is no-one of whom this is more true than Aristotle as he was dedicated to every possible discipline he could sink his teeth into making him one of the utmost key figures within philosophy, not only in classical philosophy but he is still regarded as influential in modern philosophy.

As well as being a devoted biologist, botanist, moral philosopher, psychologist, zoologist and many more things besides Aristotle held a view about human nature that he interwove into his concept of virtue theory, this is described at some length in the text Nicomachean Ethics. It is this view on human nature that I intend to explain and discuss throughout this essay with reference to some more recent philosophers to show that Aristotle’s view was not only linked directly to Athenian society but has managed to stand the test of time. A point I will return to later in a yet to posted article ‘Can we Consider Modern Ethics to be Aristotelian or Nietzschean?’, this article is much better written and argues the points in greater detail. I must admit this was in fact a very early work of mine and although some editing has been made it still lacks the strength some of my later pieces possess.

From quite early on in the text Aristotle starts to interweave his views on human nature[2]. He makes the claim that by nature man is blind to morality suggesting that man is naturally an amoral creature, this is backed up by a earlier on where he says that man is born without knowledge hence morality cannot be part of human nature as man has yet to acquire knowledge of morality[3]. Here Aristotle is not just making the suggestion that man is amoral but also that morality itself is a posteriori as opposed to being a priori knowledge. This suggestion is backed up again later by the phrase “None would be evil…wickedness is voluntary”[4]; Aristotle was claiming that no one is born immoral it is our choices that we make after birth that make us either moral or immoral. Again this points towards the idea that Aristotle believed that man is an amoral creature and that morality is a posteriori.

French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau expressed disagreement on these points since Rousseau strongly believed that “man is by nature good”[5] and not amoral as Aristotle would have us think, but both agree that external factors will later corrupt man. Also since Rousseau believes if we are moral by nature then it must follow that morality is a priori and not a posteriori as Aristotle would have us believe.

The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes who was writing during the English Civil War is also in complete disagreement with Aristotle’s claim that human nature is amoral yet at the same time disagrees with Rousseau. Instead Hobbes claimed that “man acts according to a natural law”[6] and it was this natural law that compels man to act with aggression, envy and a number of other vices that induce war, yet a firm sovereign could control this natural law. What Hobbes was hinting at is the idea that human nature is immoral and needs controlling; not as Aristotle would have us believe, amoral at birth and then corrupted as we age. Like Rousseau, Hobbes’ view also supports the theory that morality is a priori.

The next point about human nature put across in Aristotle’s writing is the idea that man is hedonistic; a term meaning to pursue pleasure and shun pain by nature. A feature which later shaped the works of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill when drawing up their moral theories of utilitarianism. There is a slight hint towards this where he comments on human nature being highly impulsive making man a creature of impulse “the lives that men lead, most men, of the vulgar type…identify the good, or happiness, with pleasure”[7].

Psychologist Sigmund Freud in his psychodynamic theory of the psyche makes good use of this point about men being impulsive creatures and argues that the our unconscious drive is completely selfish, irrational and blind to the world beyond it but at the same time entirely hedonistic[8]. The former points support Plato’s account of human nature as described in ‘The Republic’.  Plato held onto the idea that man by nature was corrupted by power, irrational and blind to true knowledge but the final point about being hedonistic supports Aristotle’s account, this possibly suggests that Freud built his psychology upon the wisdom of the ancient Greeks but this is a matter for a later article. More importantly (at least presently) it hints at the idea that Aristotle didn’t always disagree with his mentor Plato, something contrary to popular belief.

After laying down the point about man being impulsive Aristotle moves into an argument suggesting that if man is to become moral we must learn to go against our nature and control our impulses so that reason and rational judgement can guide us accurately towards being moral agents. Later on though there is a more explicit argument suggesting human nature is hedonistic[9]; again the notion that man is amoral by nature is repeated but then this notion is extended to provide a reason as to why man is immoral. The reason is thus, we follow our natural impulses to seek pleasure, hence we are hedonistic, but we are ill-educated in where we seek pleasure and so fall into the trap of seeking it within the vices making us immoral. This leads us back into Plato’s idea of human nature since the vices corrupt us as does power so both agree that it is in our nature to become corrupt, although Aristotle thinks that it is by habituation of the virtues that we can fight against this part of our nature. To summarise man is born amoral with hedonistic impulses, which if left unchecked or uncontrolled will lead us directly into immorality unless we are properly educated as to where we ought to seek pleasure.

In the opening section of book three Aristotle mentions that it is possible for man to go against his nature; this can be done by force or via choice, however to go against our nature would cause us to suffer some pain[10]. So following what has been said so far being hedonistic we would choose to follow our ill-educated nature and become immoral as opposed to suffer pain and become moral.

Throughout the second book Aristotle makes a detailed account of how to acquire the virtues in order to become moral[11], since we have already established that he argues morality was a posteriori then it holds that the virtues (not to be confused with the Christian concept of virtue. Aristotelian virtues refer to human excellences) are not part of our nature and need to be learnt. According to Aristotle the virtues need to be habituated into our nature if we are to become moral agents. Again this requires suffering, practise and time. Sadly our hedonistic impulses would much rather have us sit around dining on the elegances of fine cuisine with a glass of vintage wine deep in the art of philosophic conversation with our acquaintances. Thus it can be argued that one of the impulses that we seek pleasure from is idleness. Although what I have just described to a utilitarian would be a great achievement and ought to be applauded as it maximises pleasure, therefore a moral action, but I digress. For Aristotle, however, idleness is a vice as it is the lack of motivation. Idleness also happens to be a Christian vice as it relates to the deadly sin of acedia and as Christianity holds a strong grip on public opinion of morality in modern western culture is would seem that at least one part of Aristotle’s idea has lasted, although this could be thanks to St. Aquinas who, being a neo-platonic philosopher and therefore aimed to synthesise the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, set up the Christian virtues based on Aristotle’s moral philosophy in the latter half of the thirteenth century.

Aristotle also acknowledges that there may be a component of human nature which drives us to idleness[12]. He accepts the fact that we are all enticed by the vice of idleness, but being enticed by something would surely meant we find pleasure in it would it not? If so then if follows our hedonistic component as we find pleasure in idleness.  Aristotle then goes on to talk about each person’s individual nature being compelled towards particular vices more than others[13] although we are all naturally open to corruption again hinting at the suggestion that Aristotle agrees with Plato. There are other links to be made to idleness being part of human nature[14] where some time is spent discussing this issue along with the notion that man is ignorant and not just idle. Aristotle himself does not attempt to hide the fact that he is guilty of falling under the vice of idleness as at several points in his work he fails to elaborate on his ideas or doesn’t provide a full description; in chapter nine of the first book there is this passage “Now if there is any gift of the gods to men, it is happiness…but this question would perhaps be more appropriate to another inquiry”[15] this points at the idea that Aristotle is passing on the workload to someone else instead of doing it himself making Aristotle look guilty of idleness. However what Aristotle is doing is accepting that his knowledge has reached its limits and is allowing those with a greater understanding to fill in the details of his theory, hence he was not being idle but prudent; prudence being one of the four most worshipped virtues in Ancient Greece (the four being prudence, justice, temperance and courage); about how much he knows. Perhaps Aristotle was trying to pay homage to Socrates who stated “wisest is he who knows he does not know”[16]?

Renowned commentator on Aristotle, Jonathan Barnes comments on his zoological researches as being “by any scientific standards, slapdash”[17]. Although this is not a fair comment due to the lack of scientific tools and principles available to Aristotle at the time, it unfairly helps to strengthen the point about Aristotle being idle and should be dismissed. There is however one piece from Aristotle himself to counter this argument. Aristotle claims that man chooses to be idle and ignorant they are not part of human nature[18]. However the weight of evidence put forward by Aristotle is heavily weighed towards the view that some part of human nature compels man to be idle and ignorant.

Rousseau accepted the idea that man was by nature ignorant but at the same time held the view that man had a driving force compelling them to acquire knowledge; a view also held Aristotle.

To return to a point made earlier about Aristotle arguing that there was no such thing as an underlying human nature shared by all men. Instead he believed that each man has a unique nature belonging to that individual alone. It is this individuality within nature that compels us towards certain vices over others, so some are likely to be more idle, some more ignorant, others tempted by avaritia.

Throughout ‘The Communist Manifesto’ Marx & Engels highlight just how man is naturally compelled towards avaritia because of the course politics takes. This point is taken up by the writer George Orwell who writes about the dangers of communism in his socio-political novel ‘Animal Farm’. Within this novel there is a quote to be found at the very end of the book that supports both Aristotle and Marx that man is susceptible to avaritia via politics “The creatures outside looked from pig to man…it was impossible to say which was which”[19]. Aristotle also believes that politics carries the temptations of avaritia, which appeals to those susceptible to the vices of superbia and avaritia, so Orwell, Marx and Aristotle appear to be in agreement on this point despite talking in different times and cultures. On the other hand there is a more positive side to the notion of individual nature. That is the potential for virtues to exist within our nature if we habituate them; this is one of the foundations for Aristotle’s concept of eudemonia.

Human nature plays a part in the eudemonia theory since it is based on man having an end goal; this end goal is to seek happiness. This happiness is a specific type of happiness rooted within our function in society (be it doctor, teacher, scholar, bard or soldier), not pleasure. By performing well, sometimes called flourishing in some translations, within our function we are able to receive happiness from it and in order to perform well we must act in accordance with our virtues. However Aristotle claims that man does not naturally have a function it is determined by society, yet the potential to harbour the virtues is part of human nature along with the hedonistic component linking eudemonia to human nature. Therefore eudemonia is something based within human nature but needs a social input in order to reach actualization. One final point to make on this is that if Aristotle did not include function within human nature it might be argued that he was hinting at the suggestion that man by nature is useless unless entered into a functioning society ready to make use of him, a concept used by Plato when talking about why philosophers were useless[20].

To conclude Aristotle seems to be pretty condemning in his account of human nature since he sees man as a vice-filled hedonistic creature, totally dependant on others else he is to be useless. It would seem that elements of Aristotle’s account on human nature have been able to stand the test of time, making him an influential figure in modern moral philosophy.

References

• Aristotle, (1998), ‘The Nicomachean Ethics’, New York: Oxford World’s Classics
• Barnes J.(2000), ‘Aristotle A Very Short Introduction’, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Freud. S, (1995), ‘Beyond the Pleasure Principle’, in Gay. P, The Freud Reader, London: Vintage
• Gaardner J.(1995), ‘Sophie’s World’, London: Orion Books
• Marx K. & Engels F.(1992), ‘The Communist Manifesto’, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Orwell G.(1972), ‘Animal Farm’, London: Heinemann Educational Books
• Plato(2003), ‘The Republic’ (2^nd edition with additional revisions and further reading), London: Penguin Books
• Stokes P.(2003), ‘Philosophy 100 Essential Thinkers’, London: Arcturus Publishing Limited

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[1] Barnes. J, Aristotle a Very Short Introduction, 2000, Pg.3

[2] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1998, 1094b

[3] Ibid, 1094a

[4] Ibid, 1113b

[5] Gaardner. J (quoting Rousseau), Sophie’s World, 1995, Pg. 243

[6] Stokes. P (quoting Hobbes), Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers, 2003, Pg. 69

[7] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1998, 1095b

[8] Freud. S, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 1995, Pg. 595

[9] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1998, 1104b-1105a

[10] Ibid, 1110a-1111b

[11] Ibid, 1103a-1109b

[12] Ibid, 1109a-1109b

[13] Ibid, 1108b-1109a

[14] Ibid, 1095b-1096a and 1105a-1105b

[15] Ibid, 1099b

[16] Gaardner. J (quoting Socrates), Sophie’s World, 1995, Pg. 45

[17] Barnes. J, Aristotle a Very Short Introduction, 2000, Pg. 20

[18] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1998, 1105a-1105b

[19] Orwell. G,  Animal Farm, 1972, Pg. 89

[20] Plato, The Republic

Christmas Message 2011

Merry Christmas to you all out there in cyberspace, hope your celebrations in honour of the birth of Jesus Christ, son of God, saviour of mankind, son of David, son of man, the Messiah et cetera.

This year however I wish to draw your attention to the birthday of one other person, a key thinker in progressing scientific progress during the Enlightenment period. That someone is Sir Isaac Newton.

Yes Sir Isaac Newton, born 25th December 1642, a renowed alchemist, physicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and theologian. His birthday goes overlooked on this day so this year I have taken it upon myself to remind people of his work and how influential it has been within the sciences over the centuries following his death in 1727.

• Credited with the discovery of gravity
• Devised the law of universal gravitation F=G [[m1×m2]/r²]
• Devised the three laws of motion:

1. the velocity of a body remains constant unless the body is acted upon by an external force
2. the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force applied and directly inproportional to the mass F=ma
3. for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

• Demonstrated the constancy between Kepler’s laws of planatary motion and the laws of gravitation, thus adding the finishing touches to heliocentrism
• Constructed the first reflecting telescope
• Developed the theory of spectral light radiation via observations done with prisms
• Devised one of the thermodynamic laws

• Alongside Gottfried Leibniz devised differential calculus, integral calculus and infinitesimal calculus

So once again I wish you all a merry christmas. But when you think of Jesus asleep in his manger on this day please spare a moment for Sir Isaac and his apple.

Emma West’s Racist Outburst…Expression of Liberty or License?

It has been recently annouced in the news in the UK and thanks to YouTube and other internet media probably the whole world now that  thrity-four year old Emma West made a very racist annoucement on a packed tram. For those who have not yet seen it…[if easily offended I recommend not viewing the clip].

Not that I agree with anything Emma said in the youtube clip but it does raise an improtant question. Where does freedom of speech fit inside all of this?

Before I briefly discuss the issue I will explain what I mean by the terms liberty and license. Liberty is defined as being “freedom, a right or privalige”[1] by the Oxford Dictionary, and within politcal philosophy it is also used to mean; political freedom, a right. License however is defined as being “freedom to do as you like”[2], or to put it another way; liberty in need of, but without, censorship, hence when liberty is left untamed it crosses a particular line where it beings to become dangerous to the liberties of others and that is where liberty becomes license. So now this has been established let us look at the incident in question…

Theorictally Emma should be able to express her views as she has done without fear of persecution due to her freedom of speech, on the other hand liberty untamed leads to, in cases like this, extremist groups such as the British Nationalist Party [BNP] (other groups also exist including the English Defence League [EDL]) banding together to persecute ethnic minorites, whom when banded together make up a significant proportion of Britain’s populous today and help support Britain by contributing to the economy by working hard and paying thier taxes. Of course there will be, as always is the case, those who are milking the system but that is true for Brits also some work hard others milk the system. Alas I divulge the point I am trying to make here is where exactly does freedom of speech end and where does license begin? In my very honest opinion Emma’s outburst falls very close to that borderline where liberty becomes license, as to which side of that line it falls it I shall leave you to decide.

[1] Pg 358 ,Oxford Mini Dictionary, (2002), New York: Oxford University Press

[2] Ibid

The Infinite Paradoxes of Infinity Explored

Firstly apologizes about the misleading title, I shall not be exploring an infinite number of paradoxes surrounding the concept of infinity, however I shall be exploring a small number of mathematical abnormalities involving infinity which can lead to some bizarre, yet valid, conclusions. To begin with let us look at the phenomenon of diving 0 by 0…

I trust we are all familiar with the simple laws of mathematics which state that whenever a set number (we shall call this X) is divided by the same exact number the answer must always be 1, thus X/X=1

Another law states that whenever 0 by any given number (X) the answer must always be 0, hence 0/X=0

Thirdly yet another law claims that whenever a given number (X) is divided by 0 the answer must always be ∞, therefore X/0=∞

So by combining all these laws by making 0/0 then we end up with a strange occurence as in this case X=0 so the answer must be 1, also as X/0 and 0/X are also being used here the answer must simultaneously be 0 and ∞ making 0=1=∞.

From this we can now validly argue that -1 is smaller than ∞ (not that this was doubted beforehand) but more absurdly 2 is greater than ∞. Let us now move onto the second abnormality mathematics throws at us which I am going to explore…

This time only two laws are being called into question, the first being that whenever a given number (X) is raised to the power of 0 the answer shall always be 1. And whenever a 0 is raised to any given power (X) the answer shall always 0.

If you are wise you might have guessed where this is leading, if we make X=0 then by raising 0 to the power of itself then the answer must, in order to obey both laws, relinquish the answers both 0 and 1 simultaneously, similar to the situation previously with the 0/0 scenario. This is further evidence to suggest (and once again validly so) that 0 and 1 are equal to each other or to put it another way something is always equal to nothing and vice versa. This being the case then, and now the logic becomes a bit shaky, claims that something arrives from nothing is no longer an absurd proposition, furthermore if this new statement proves to be sound then any argument for a self-creating God or universe (that is to say any entity which generates itself out of nothing) is logically possible given the mathematical proof just been provided.

The underlying for this idea that self-creating objects can arrive out of nothing…think back to the beginning was it not validly argued that 0 and 1 both equal ∞? So then if out of nothing something emerges as nothing and something are the same thing, then this is because within nothing everything is contained and within something everything is also contained so both nothing and something hold an infinite potential. And on this final twist I shall say thank you for reading. Keep a watch out for next month’s article, and don’t forget to comment.

Kant’s Analogies of Experience: A Lighter Perpesctive

Let us first divide cognition into rational analyse,

And sensory perception which Descartes considered valueless,

Now reason gives us concepts which are true but tautological,

Sensation gives us images whose content is phenomenal.

Whatever greets are senses must exist in space and time,

Or else it would be nowhere and nowhen and therefore slime,

The space and time we presuppose before we sense reality,

must have innate subjective transcendental ideality,

Thus space and time are forms of our perception,

Whereby sensations are synthesised into orderly array.

The same must hold for rational conception,

In everything we think the laws of logic must hold sway.

But a problem here arises with respect to natural science,

While empirical in method on pure though it lies reliant,

Although for Newton’s findings we to Newton give the glory,

Newton never could have found them if they weren’t known a priori.

We know that nature governed is by principles immutable,

But how we come to know is inherently inscrutable,

That thought requires logic is a standpoint unassailable,

But for objects of our senses explanations aren’t available.

So let’s attempt to vivisect cognition,

By critical analysis in hope that we find,

The link between pure thought and intuition,

A deduction transcendental will shed light upon the mind.

You may recall that space and time are forms of apprehension,

And therefore what we sense has spatiotemporal extension,

Whatever is extended is composed of a plurality,

But through an act of synthesis we form a communality.

If we are to be conscious of a single concrete entity,

Each part of its extension must be given independently,

Combining in a transcendental apperceptive unity,

To which I may ascribe the term self–conscious with impunity.

The order of various sensations arises from connections,

Not be held in sense alone,

Our self creates the rules of their relations,

And of this combination it is conscious of its own.

While these rules correspond to scientific causal laws,

The question of their constancy remains to give us pause,

But once we recollect the source of our self-conscious mind,

To this perverse dilemma a solution we may find.

The self is nothing but its act in synthesis sublime,

This act must be the same to be self-conscious over time,

The rules for combination of its selfhood form the ground,

So what we perceive tomorrow by today’s laws must be bound.

These constant laws whereby we shape experience,

Are simply those which regulate our reason that is plain,

So don’t ask why the stars display invariance,

The cosmos is produced by your disoriented brain.

*This is not my own work but something I found on YouTube and proved useful in helping me remember the point of what Kant was suggesting to see the article it’s in original form a link to the YouTube clip has been attached*

An Evaluation of Kant’s Arguments in the Analogies of Experience

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant throughout his book Critique of Pure Reason argued that time and substance are permanent, this being the case then they must be the foundations for an objective understanding of the world as opposed to the subjective understanding we are currently following based on our perceptions of phenomena. He also argues that for us to make the connection between the manifold of subjective perceptions and objective understanding we require a synthetic unity which comes to us in the form of cause and effect a tool of cognition which combines phenomena with a priori reasoning. But just how valid are Kant’s arguments? It would seem the evidence supports his claims although a small number of philosophers fear what would happen should we gain access to an objective understanding of the world and try to put us off any attempt from moving towards it.

Kant established a set of three analogies named the ‘analogies of experience’ in order to demonstrate that “experience is possible only through the presentation of a necessary connection of perceptions”[1], or in words experience is the a posteriori synthetic unity of all our perceptions merged into one single consciousness. Kant goes about proving this by making three arguments revolving around the three aspects of what he terms the ‘inner sense’ or ‘inner intuition’, to which we commonly refer to as time. These three aspects of time are thus; permanence, succession and community, with each relying on the former aspects in order for the whole argument to remain valid. Before evaluating Kant’s arguments within the analogies it is best to first give a brief summary of the arguments.

Throughout the first analogy Kant argues “in all variation by appearances substance is permanent, and its quantum in nature is neither increased nor decreased”[2] the reasoning behind this claim is that all our appearances occur within, and only within, time, therefore time must itself be a permanent fixture in the universe allowing substance to flow in sequence or form unities leading to the ever changing appearances we have. He also adds that even though time itself cannot be perceived only conceived as it is the inner sense then it must be a priori to the universe and all substance within it both of which must therefore be a posteriori by necessity. Kant also argues that substance is permanent by referring to an example about smoke, “substance endures and only the accidents vary”[3] as when wood is burnt it leaves smoke and ash but the total mass of the smoke and ash will always be equal to the mass of the wood prior to it being burnt, hence substance is a permanent fixture yet its form changes in time. Since it is only accidents that vary then it must be the case that, for Kant at least, “our apprehension of the manifold of appearance is always successive, and therefore is always varying. Hence…apprehension alone…can never determine whether this manifold considered as experience is simultaneous or sequential…unless something underlying in experience is there always.” Or in other words, the combination of our perceptions will change from moment to moment so our understanding of the world alone is not enough to construct knowledge of how the external world really is as it fails to grasp the constants hiding within it. So the first analogy Kant has argued that substance and time are the only constants in the universe with all other things undergoing change and for this reason we cannot understand the world by empirical means alone.

The second analogy is dedicated to the temporal mode of succession in which Kant tries to convince us that “All changes occur according to the law of the connection of cause and effect”[4] because all appearances succeed one another because we apply our cognition to connect our perceptions in time, thus cause and effect is a synthesising product born out of our cognition. However Kant later adds to this point “But a concept carrying with it a necessity of synthetic unity can only be a pure concept of understanding”[5] thus cause and effect is a key part of our faculty of understanding and therefore needed if we our to obtain knowledge of phenomena, this is because when we perceive phenomena we never actually perceive the object in itself. For example say you were to read the analogies within Critique of Pure Reason you would not actually be perceiving the book itself, only the manifold of all the appearances it presents to your sense of perception, thus objects in themselves remain unknown to us. This isn’t the only thing Kant believes to be beyond our comprehension he also states that “an actuality succeeding in empty time…cannot be apprehended any more than empty time”[6] the reasoning behind this is that to have empty time there must be non-existence yet in the previous analogy he concluded that substance is permanent, hence persists in every point of time making the notion of empty time absurd, from this we can make the inductive leap that cause and effect (probably) relies on substance being permanent. To conclude Kant has argued that cause and effect is the necessary synthetic unity binding time to phenomena via succession which relies on the permanence of substance if a posteriori knowledge of phenomena is to be possible.

The final analogy is concerned with community. Kant uses this analogy to argue that “All substances insofar as they can be perceived in space as simultaneous are in thoroughgoing interaction”[7] meaning that existents although seen to be existing individually, yet simultaneously, are actually existing within a community where they constantly affect one another within each instance in time. For Kant “Things are only simultaneous if their perception can…succeed one another reciprocally”[8] for example placing a ball on a cushion would cause an indentation in the cushion as the indentation makes room for the ball being placed upon the cushion, thus both occur within the same instance. This led to Kant arguing that “substances in space cannot be cognized in experience except under the presupposition that they interact with one another…Therefore every substance…must contain within itself the causality of certain determination in the other substance and simultaneously must contain within itself the effects of the other substance’s causality”[9], hence substance must contain every possible connection of cause and effect within it simultaneously so that they can be perceived as if they are in constant interaction with one another. In conclusion every substance affects all other substances as all other substances affect the substance first in question, thus substances are held in a community linked by cause and effect within time.

Gardner argues “The Analogies proceed to show that the…categories of substance and causality perform a transcendental function…tied specifically to the circumstance that we are subjects…in time”[10] because when thinking about objects as being things outside our representations we must think of them as existing within time, but beyond the assumed mental flow of our representations. If we cannot do this then objects, that is to say substance, falls back into the temporal flow making then vulnerable to change which goes against Kant’s argument that substance is permanent. Following from this we can assume that Gardner is trying to support Kant in the claim that substance is, in fact, permanent. Yet Kant holds that time and substance cannot be perceived only conceived making them a priori as Scruton argues “every category corresponds to a principle, whose truth is presupposed in its application”[11] and is therefore a priori, hence how the world is objective via necessity even if we cannot perceive it to be as such.

This notion of having time and substance as beyond perception, yet permanent and objective, implies that there must be something else outside, and beyond, phenomena where all objective knowledge must reside. Scruton states this to be the case as “we find causes only by postulating a realm of enduring things”[12], Kant adheres to this by referring to a realm of objective knowledge which he calls noumena, thus we now have what Gardner referred to as the ‘transcendental function’ of Kant’s analogies. The transcendental function being the analogies were set up in order to prove the existence of noumena in what would seem to be a dualistic epistemology similar to Plato’s concept of the Forms in the intelligible realm and substances in the sensible realm. Gardner also accepts the notion of an objective realm as all things are bound by a single objective nature, he argues “we inhabit a world…in which all objective empirical facts have a particular form, and all appearances collectively compose ‘one nature’”[13] or a manifold which Kant would say lights up an a priori resemblance to that form within noumena, as opposed to being a relative, and therefore subjective, manifold as Hume argues for.

One argument against Kant is ‘if this knowledge is beyond our perception maybe there is a good reason as to why this is the case’ a view held by Prymus who argues that “madmen were feared because it was supposed that they were driven crazy by stumbling upon hidden secrets of the universe…knowledge that no human could comprehend”[14] so for any of us to gain access to noumena would prove dangerous. We have been given warnings of this within popular culture, for example in the sci-fi series Doctor Who an evil villain known only as ‘The Master’ when placed in front of the temporal schism to see time for what it is in itself lost his mind and began plotting away against creation. Similarly in the video game Final Fantasy VI we encounter a clown called Kefka who after being infused with magic to enhance his knowledge of the universe becomes homicidal as he attempts to reduce creation to a state of non-existence. Prymus argues the reason as to why objective knowledge makes us act in such a way is because objective knowledge makes us ‘arational’, that is to say we become entities outside the sphere of rationality (neither rational or irrational), whilst outside this sphere we realise “most of us see existence as necessary, as an imperative…existence is really only…a hypothetical imperative”[15] meaning that existence is only necessary so long as it adheres to our idea of what we seek in the world.

However Prymus’ argument on first sight doesn’t seem to correspond to Kant’s analogies but only to his concept of there being a realm known as noumena, nor does it argues against any of Kant’s arguments as being true. But if we were to take Prymus’ use of the word existence in her essay and ask ‘what is existence?’ then we can answer it by looking at Aristotle who argued that existence is what exists and what exists is substance. Thus we can now deduce by the logical procedure that if X is equal to Y and Y is equal to Z then by necessity X must be equal to Z to state that existence is substance. Now we can see that Prymus’ argument actually relates to the first analogy where Kant argues that substance is permanent. Now if these warnings are true and someone does gain access to noumena and tries to destroy substance then they would also take down cause and effect and the interaction between substances making knowledge, be it a priori or a posteriori impossible. We can therefore conclude that we should not seek objective knowledge but be satisfied with the subjective empiricism offered to us by Hume, unless Kant is mistaken.

Kant originally set up the analogies in response to Hume’s arguments of cause and effect in hope that it would disprove Hume, but just what was Hume’s argument? Hume argued that “It is evident, that there is a principle of connection between the different thoughts…in the mind…To me, there appear to be only three principles of connection among ideas…resemblance, contiguity in time and place, and cause or effect”[16]. It appears that Hume, like Kant, accepts that time must be permanent and cause and effect must also exist if knowledge derived from our perceptions is to be obtainable. However this is where the similarity draws to an end as for Hume knowledge must only be based on empirical methods, and therefore we can only hope to achieve a posteriori knowledge which is subjective due to our own relative experiences of the world, the reasoning behind this is that if “we must enquire how we arrive at the knowledge of cause and effect…knowledge of this relation is not…attained by reasonings a priori”[17] it is only through our experience of phenomena that we conceive the concept of cause and effect, for example if given two billiard balls we would never accept that the first would cause the second to move if it rolled into it unless we had seen this to be the case on a number of previous occasions so that it became a fixed continuity of how things are in accordance with the laws of Newton’s physics. Yet Hume never accepts that cause and effect exists as part of phenomena as it can not be perceived, instead it is a cognitive synthesiser uniting two separate events together consistently to produce a manifold of presentations. So if we cannot perceive cause and effect yet it still does the same job as Kant believes it does, then we can say that cause and effect lies within noumena along with time and substance, thus Hume and Kant although go about it by alternative methods seem to reach similar conclusions as to the nature of time, causality and substance.

To conclude even though Kant set off to argue against the subjective empiricism of Hume he actually constructed a set of arguments similar to Hume based upon a transcendental empiricism (otherwise known as transcendental idealism). A framework supported by, to some degree, Plato, Scruton, Hume and Gardner. However as Prymus pointed out there may be hidden dangers lurking within this realm of objective knowledge, so it might be advisable to remain contented with the subjective empiricism of Hume until we know as to whether there is any truth in Prymus’ claims or if they are just scare tactics to keep us all in the dark about how the world really is.  

Bibliography

• Aristotle, 2004, Metaphysics, London: Penguin Classics
• Gardner. S, 1999, Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason, Abingdon (Oxfordshire): Routledge
• Hume. D, 2008, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Kant. I, 1999, Critique of Pure Reason (Abridged (Translated by W. S. Pluhar)), Indianapolis: Hackett
• Kant. I, 2007, Critique of Pure Reason (Reissued Edition (Translated by Smith)), Basingstoke (Hampshire): Palgrave Macmillan
• Plato, 2007, The Republic (second edition), London: Penguin Classics
• Prymus. K, 2009, ‘Kefka, Nietzsche, Foucault: Madness and Nihilism in Final Fantasy VI’, in Beaulieu. M and Blahuta. J, ‘Final Fantasy and Philosophy the Ultimate Walkthrough’, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc, pp 20-33
• Scruton. R, 2001, Kant a Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00pk651/Doctor_Who_The_End_of_Time_Part_1/
• http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00pk7ls/Doctor_Who_The_End_of_Time_Part_2/

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[1] Kant. I, Critique of Pure Reason, 1999, B218

[2] Ibid, A182

[3] Ibid, A184

[4] Ibid, A189

[5] Ibid, B234

[6] Ibid, A192

[7] Ibid, A211

[8] Ibid, B257

[9] Ibid, B258-B259

[10] Gardner. S, Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason, 1999, Pg. 171

[11] Scruton. R, Kant a Very Short Introduction, 2001, Pg. 47

[12] Ibid, Pg. 51

[13] Gardner. S, Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason, 1999, Pg. 177

[14] Prymus. K, ‘Kefka, Nietzsche, Foucault: Madness and Nihilism in Final Fantasy VI’, in Beaulieu. M and Blahuta. J, ‘Final Fantasy and Philosophy the Ultimate Walkthrough’, Pg. 24

[15] Ibid, Pg. 27

[16] Hume. D, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 2008, Pg. 16

[17] Ibid, Pg. 19